Long-term solutions for the tourism sector include the development and implementation of national policies, regulations, and coordination towards adapting climate change. Current policies are focused on preserving the ecosystems and preventing the worsening of certain effects (i.e. coral bleaching). Policy making will require the involvement of foreign experts to assist the Maldivian government. The government must also help businesses by providing incentives to encourage them to change their method of running and to prepare them for climate change adaptation. This is important for both sides because tourism accounts for a huge chunk of the Maldivian economy. Internally, the government needs to strengthen the Ministries of Tourism, Environment, Energy & Water, and Atolls Development in order to anticipate and cope with the changes brought by climate change. For tourist resorts, more practical methods can be implemented. Upgraded wastewater management can help preserve surrounding corals and fishery. Reduce, reuse, and recycle is a great management strategy for dealing with solid waste. Finally, the use of safari boats between destinations reduces seawater pollution.
In order to prevent the impending mass Maldivian refugee crisis, alternative solutions have been sought after. One suggestion is for the Maldivian government to establish bilateral migration agreements with other nations. This solution is referenced from New Zealand's Pacific Access Scheme in 2001, where a certain number of residents of Tuvalu, Kiribati, and Tonga will migrate annually to New Zealand each year. For the case of Maldives, these agreements can be made with neighboring countries of Sri Lanka and India due to the relative smaller cultural differences between the three populations. Australia and Canada are also potential partners for Maldives because of their relative underpopulation and their already culturally diverse population. Accepting a certain quota of immigrants per year can minimize chaos and disruption in Maldives as well as not creating extra trouble and resentment in receiving countries. A less feasible solution of buying a new homeland has also been proposed in 2008 by the government. The plan is to divert a percentage of the annual tourist revenue into a fund that will be used to purchase a new homeland. The advantage of this solution is the preservation of Maldivian culture and identity because those will be preserved in the new homeland. But buying a new homeland will be very expensive and it will cause enormous pressure on the current vulnerable Maldivian economy. A possible alternative to fundraising is for the international community to help out by "charging" a commission of 2% on the global carbon trade, since carbon trade relates directly to global warming and the subsequent rise of sea levels. This will generate 250 million USD per year based on current markets.
For protecting coastlines, education is definitely needed for the local island governments about the different island types and the characteristics of each. This is needed as atolls and large islands have very different current and wind patterns. A possible conclusion is that for islands with larger population densities and size (such as Male), infrastructural solutions may be the preferred method to prevent erosion. Smaller islands and atolls, however, can use an alternative approach. These islands can utilize the island's strong dynamic forces instead of building structure after structure to prevent erosion. This would require the education of nearshore processes and the specifics of how the island reuglates itself. The government should be wary of the use of previous methods (i.e. building engineered structures) because they run the risk of multiplying and worsening existing problems.
Wednesday, November 28, 2012
Challenges and the Future of the Ecosystem
The Maldivian government plays a huge role in maintaining its ecosystem for the livelihoods of the population by protecting the economic incomes in fisheries and tourism. Currently, the government does have regulations in place for the tourism sector to protect the surrounding environment. However, improved implementation and higher standards of these regulations can definitely strengthen the government's efforts. Some recommendations to improve the regulations include the mandatory requirement of sustainable sewage-treatement plants in all resorts, desalination plants used in resorts to preserve groundwater, law preventing the clearing of more than 20% of an island's vegetation, law requiring a minimum of 5 meters between natural vegetation and man-made construction (i.e. buildings) etc. In terms of addressing the tourism sector, change is definitely needed because of the relative lack of awareness towards the imminent issue of climate change.
In the case for displaced refugees due to sea-level rise, it is projected around the year 2050, half of teh capital Male will be submerged, as well as most of the atolls of the country. When this occurs, basically all of the populations from the outer atolls will be classified internationally as Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) because their habitat has been submerged and is unsuitable for living. But because there are still parts of the country (i.e. half of the capital) that are still suitable for living, the government can theoretically still provide habitat and safety for the IDPs. But the overall living conditions will obviously deteriorate as the already congested capital must receive more population. Since international definitions on accepting IDPs as international refugees vary, there may be a chance for the Maldivians to immigrate. But for most countries, these IDPs do not qualify for refugee status and thus the IDPs are forced to live in poorer standard of living. In 2100, it is projected that the entire nation will be submerged and only a small strip of land on each of the main large islands will remain above sea level. The small strips of land obviously cannot sustain the entire Maldivian population. The Maldivians will then be able to clain refugee status in other nations as they can no longer survive within Maldives. The non-refoulment (the inability to return) criteria in determining refugee status will be legitimately in place and Maldivians can claim refugee asylum abroad. Therefore, based on current understanding of refugee status only when almost all of the nation is submerged can Maldivians be assured of a home outside of their country.
The inadequacy of many shoreline protection infrastructure provides addtional risks to the islands, including the further destruction to reef systems alongside the islands. Counter-intuitively and rather ironically, the random and mindless proliferation of these structures will lead to enhanced island erosion due to net sediment loss (as explained in the Current Human Impacts section). So the key to the future development of shoreline protection lies in the understanding between communities and the dynamic islands they live on. There is a need to adjust new infrastructure based on better planning and the consideration of land use. Remember, the main goal is to ensure sediment can be kept on the island systematically, not eroded away.
In the case for displaced refugees due to sea-level rise, it is projected around the year 2050, half of teh capital Male will be submerged, as well as most of the atolls of the country. When this occurs, basically all of the populations from the outer atolls will be classified internationally as Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) because their habitat has been submerged and is unsuitable for living. But because there are still parts of the country (i.e. half of the capital) that are still suitable for living, the government can theoretically still provide habitat and safety for the IDPs. But the overall living conditions will obviously deteriorate as the already congested capital must receive more population. Since international definitions on accepting IDPs as international refugees vary, there may be a chance for the Maldivians to immigrate. But for most countries, these IDPs do not qualify for refugee status and thus the IDPs are forced to live in poorer standard of living. In 2100, it is projected that the entire nation will be submerged and only a small strip of land on each of the main large islands will remain above sea level. The small strips of land obviously cannot sustain the entire Maldivian population. The Maldivians will then be able to clain refugee status in other nations as they can no longer survive within Maldives. The non-refoulment (the inability to return) criteria in determining refugee status will be legitimately in place and Maldivians can claim refugee asylum abroad. Therefore, based on current understanding of refugee status only when almost all of the nation is submerged can Maldivians be assured of a home outside of their country.
The inadequacy of many shoreline protection infrastructure provides addtional risks to the islands, including the further destruction to reef systems alongside the islands. Counter-intuitively and rather ironically, the random and mindless proliferation of these structures will lead to enhanced island erosion due to net sediment loss (as explained in the Current Human Impacts section). So the key to the future development of shoreline protection lies in the understanding between communities and the dynamic islands they live on. There is a need to adjust new infrastructure based on better planning and the consideration of land use. Remember, the main goal is to ensure sediment can be kept on the island systematically, not eroded away.
Human Impact & Current Status of the Ecosystem
A severely impacted part of the Maldivian ecosystem is the coral reefs. Corals are damaged by the construction of resorts on the coasts of islands. Furthermore, corals continue to be destroyed as tourism booms due to the contamination from wastes and pollutants associated with running the resorts. As explained in the Historic Background section, the loss of corals will have a significant economic impact on Maldives. One of the main players in Maldives is tourism. A problem of foreign investment in tourism is the outflow of profits back to the country of origin. This accelerates the increasing polarization between the Maldivian elite, who work in cooperation with the foreign companies, and the poor outer islanders, who do not have the opportunity to work in the high-paying tourism sector. However, for tourism there is a perhaps more important long-term risk that the industry must address. This is the potiential damage and harm brought by climate change. The primary reason for tourist attraction to the Maldives is the country's unique and diverse ecosystem. Climate change has the potential to annihilate the ecosystem one step at a time, with effects already seen from sea-level rise and warming seas. However, the main issue the country faces is the widespread disregard of the seriousness of climate change. In interviews performed by a Maldivian doctoral student on various stakeholders in the tourism industry, almost all stakeholders considered other short-term risks as the more important issues. Some of these short-term issues include the reduction of tourist numbers due to global recession, waste disposal issues, shortages of skilled local labor etc. Also, many of these stakeholders believe that climate change is "still a theory" and that the environment will adjust and adapt to the changes eventually, so there is nothing to worry about. Regarding existing effects of climate change, such as coral bleaching and beach erosion, the stakeholders believed that they are caused by the poor management and poor environmental practices at tourist attractions. Finally, local tourist operators fear that the over-discussion of climate change will ultimately scare off potential tourists. Foreign tour companies will then divert these tourists to another similar destination, such as Thailand, causing unnecessary harm to the Maldivian economy.
The gradual sea-level rise will directly displace Maldivians who live on the shore. In fact, the coastal population of Maldives accounts for more than 60% of the country's population. Other than the potential impacts on the ecosystem due to rapid and uncontrolled coastal development, one pressing issue for these residents is the increasing hazard coming from the ocean, such as the overwash of currents onto the shore during monsoons and tropical storms. It is estimated that as global sea-level rises, the coastal population will have to be displaced to an area of higher elevation. The displacement process is already occurring now in the southern Laamu Atolls as farmland had become salinized to the point that farming is no longer possible. But however, based on current scenarios, in the short term these populations will have trouble getting refugee status internationally. This is because the government of Maldives is still capable of securing the safety of these displaced residents by moving them to an area of higher elevation. Therefore, the coastal population can only be internally displaced in the short term future.
For coastal infrastructure built to reduce and stop beach erosion, many of the existing infrastructure are inadequate and failing. Several anthropogenic factors contribute to a large part of this failure. First of all, the design and construction of successful infrastructure, such as the expensive Japanese-financed sea wall around the capital Male, cannot be accessed by locals due to economic and technical reasons. In order to cope with this shortcoming, many local builders reference case studies of similar infrastructure in other countries. The problem with this is that Maldives has unique nearshore and coastal processes that pertain to small reef islands. Hydrodynamic forces are way stronger around these reef islands. So sea walls and nearshore breakwaters that are constructed by referencing foreign examples and without research often fail quickly. In addition, poor construcional practices compound to this issue and infrastructure fails even more quickly. Sea walls and breakwaters are often constructed with a random mix of materials that are ready and present on the islands. This also accelerates the process of infrastructure failure as materials like concrete, cement sand bags (often with poor quality cement), and even wooden structures are often too weak to withstand the high hydrodynamic forces. Another potential issue that man-made infrastructure may bring is the unpredictability of sediment transfer. Because islands are dynamic landforms, sea currents transport sediment and sand from beaches of one side of an island to another part of the island. With the existence of sea walls and breakwaters, the ocean currents are disrupted. A couple of situations might occur. Firstly, sand and sediment is transported out of one side of the island, but fails to reach the target because of the disrupted current patterns. This results in permanent loss as the sediment and sand are not returned to the island (i.e. net sediment deficit). Net sediment deficit can also occur when the sediment and sand gets trapped underneath a sea wall. This affects the corals living around the sea wall and creates extra pressure on the sea wall. Finally, because of the dynamic nature of the Maldivian islands, infrastructure constructed on one end of an island will have effects on erosion patterns in the opposite end of the island.
The gradual sea-level rise will directly displace Maldivians who live on the shore. In fact, the coastal population of Maldives accounts for more than 60% of the country's population. Other than the potential impacts on the ecosystem due to rapid and uncontrolled coastal development, one pressing issue for these residents is the increasing hazard coming from the ocean, such as the overwash of currents onto the shore during monsoons and tropical storms. It is estimated that as global sea-level rises, the coastal population will have to be displaced to an area of higher elevation. The displacement process is already occurring now in the southern Laamu Atolls as farmland had become salinized to the point that farming is no longer possible. But however, based on current scenarios, in the short term these populations will have trouble getting refugee status internationally. This is because the government of Maldives is still capable of securing the safety of these displaced residents by moving them to an area of higher elevation. Therefore, the coastal population can only be internally displaced in the short term future.
For coastal infrastructure built to reduce and stop beach erosion, many of the existing infrastructure are inadequate and failing. Several anthropogenic factors contribute to a large part of this failure. First of all, the design and construction of successful infrastructure, such as the expensive Japanese-financed sea wall around the capital Male, cannot be accessed by locals due to economic and technical reasons. In order to cope with this shortcoming, many local builders reference case studies of similar infrastructure in other countries. The problem with this is that Maldives has unique nearshore and coastal processes that pertain to small reef islands. Hydrodynamic forces are way stronger around these reef islands. So sea walls and nearshore breakwaters that are constructed by referencing foreign examples and without research often fail quickly. In addition, poor construcional practices compound to this issue and infrastructure fails even more quickly. Sea walls and breakwaters are often constructed with a random mix of materials that are ready and present on the islands. This also accelerates the process of infrastructure failure as materials like concrete, cement sand bags (often with poor quality cement), and even wooden structures are often too weak to withstand the high hydrodynamic forces. Another potential issue that man-made infrastructure may bring is the unpredictability of sediment transfer. Because islands are dynamic landforms, sea currents transport sediment and sand from beaches of one side of an island to another part of the island. With the existence of sea walls and breakwaters, the ocean currents are disrupted. A couple of situations might occur. Firstly, sand and sediment is transported out of one side of the island, but fails to reach the target because of the disrupted current patterns. This results in permanent loss as the sediment and sand are not returned to the island (i.e. net sediment deficit). Net sediment deficit can also occur when the sediment and sand gets trapped underneath a sea wall. This affects the corals living around the sea wall and creates extra pressure on the sea wall. Finally, because of the dynamic nature of the Maldivian islands, infrastructure constructed on one end of an island will have effects on erosion patterns in the opposite end of the island.
Tuesday, November 27, 2012
Historical/Economic Background & Problems faced by Maldivian Ecosystem
Maldives is a country of islands. The nation consists of 1,192 coral islands, which are spread out and clustered into 26 atolls in the Indian Ocean. However, land area represented by the 1,192 islands is only a mere 2% of Maldives' total area. These islands are all low-lying, with an average elevation of 1.6 meters above sea level. The highest point of the whole nation is only 3 meters above sea level, with 80% of its land area below 1 meter in elevation. In terms of human settlement, only 199 out of the 1,192 islands are inhabited. 70% of the 199 islands have a population of 1,000 or fewer.
The Maldivian economy is extremely dependent on its two main industries: Tourism and Fisheries. In terms of tourism, 93% of GNP (data from 2000) or 32.3% of GDP (2003 data) came from this industry. Tourism provided local Maldivians with jobs and opportunities. A whopping 57% of the Maldivian workforce is employed within the tourism industry. Jobs in the industry include working at resorts, hotels, restaurants, as well as supporting services such as transport. In terms of agriculture, Maldives rely heavily on fisheries due to its geographic location and lack of arable land. Only aroiund 10% of the land area in Maldives is suitable for agricultural farming. This creates a huge potential hazard. Short-term events that negatively impact the fishing and tourism industries (i.e. tsunami and terrorism respectively) will hit the Maldivian economy hard.
Climate change and sea temperature rise have caused several major issues which gradually worsen. The latter is responsible for the significant problem of coral bleaching in the nation. Maldives currently owns aroudn 5% of the world's total coral area. In addition, the Maldivian coral reefs play instrumental roles to the Maldivian economy. Coral reefs provide a suitable and preferable natural habitat for fisheries. It is also one of the main attractions for tourists in the country. More than a quarter of the tourists into Maldives participate in scuba-diving and more than three quarters of the tourists participate in snorkeling. Coral bleaching, thus, damages both the fisheries and tourism industries. Also, freshwater resources are running scarce on the islands due to fewer and irregular precipitation in recent years and contamination of fresh water by sea water. The jeopardy of fresh water resources worsen the local standard of living. One last problem that Maldives faces is shoreline erosion. This problem becomes more serious as sea level rises and climate change proceeds. This is caused by the changing wind and current patterns.
The Maldivian economy is extremely dependent on its two main industries: Tourism and Fisheries. In terms of tourism, 93% of GNP (data from 2000) or 32.3% of GDP (2003 data) came from this industry. Tourism provided local Maldivians with jobs and opportunities. A whopping 57% of the Maldivian workforce is employed within the tourism industry. Jobs in the industry include working at resorts, hotels, restaurants, as well as supporting services such as transport. In terms of agriculture, Maldives rely heavily on fisheries due to its geographic location and lack of arable land. Only aroiund 10% of the land area in Maldives is suitable for agricultural farming. This creates a huge potential hazard. Short-term events that negatively impact the fishing and tourism industries (i.e. tsunami and terrorism respectively) will hit the Maldivian economy hard.
Climate change and sea temperature rise have caused several major issues which gradually worsen. The latter is responsible for the significant problem of coral bleaching in the nation. Maldives currently owns aroudn 5% of the world's total coral area. In addition, the Maldivian coral reefs play instrumental roles to the Maldivian economy. Coral reefs provide a suitable and preferable natural habitat for fisheries. It is also one of the main attractions for tourists in the country. More than a quarter of the tourists into Maldives participate in scuba-diving and more than three quarters of the tourists participate in snorkeling. Coral bleaching, thus, damages both the fisheries and tourism industries. Also, freshwater resources are running scarce on the islands due to fewer and irregular precipitation in recent years and contamination of fresh water by sea water. The jeopardy of fresh water resources worsen the local standard of living. One last problem that Maldives faces is shoreline erosion. This problem becomes more serious as sea level rises and climate change proceeds. This is caused by the changing wind and current patterns.
Distribution of Engineered Structures in Maldives - Data Table
Summary of engineering structures used on 45 inhabited and resort islands in the Maldives
Type of
coastal structure or modification
|
Number of
structures on Inhabited Islands
(n = 30)
|
Number of
structures on resort
Islands (n = 15)
|
Seawall
|
22
[73%]
|
8
[53%]
|
Nearshore
breakwater
|
3
[10%]
|
10
[67%]
|
Revetment
|
3
[10%]
|
None
|
Groynes
|
10
[33%]
|
11
[73%]
|
Reclamation
|
10
[33%]
|
None
|
Quay
wall
|
30
[91%]
|
4
[27%]
|
Harbor
breakwater
|
26
[87%]
|
2
[13%]
|
Entrance
channel protection
|
23
[77%]
|
2
[13%]
|
Land
reclamation
|
30
[91%]
|
4
[27%]
|
Bridge/Causeway
|
2
[7%]
|
4
[27%]
|
Bibliography/Reference of Sources Used
1. Chomette,
Guy-Pierre, and Guillaume Collanges. "Indian Ocean Maldives, An
Archipelago in Peril." Climate Refugees. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2010.
124-63. Print.
2. Kench, Paul S. "Compromising
Reef Island Shoreline." Pitfalls of Shoreline Stabilization: Selected
Case Studies 3 (2012): 165-86. SpringerLink. Springer. Web. 21 Nov.
2012. <http://www.springerlink.com/content/j105x2/#section=1078865&page=1&locus=57>.
3. Regina Scheyvens & Janet H. Momsen (2008): Tourism and
Poverty Reduction: Issues for Small Island States,
Tourism Geographies: An International Journal of Tourism Space, Place and
Environment, 10:1, 22-414. Karthikheyan, T. C. "Environmental Challenges for Maldives." South Asian Survey 17.2 (2010): 343-51. Sage. Sage Publications, 18 Aug. 2012. Web. 21 Nov. 2012. http://sas.sagepub.com/content/17/2/343.
5. Becken, S. U. S. A. N. N. E., et al. "The risk of climate change for tourism in the Maldives." Island Tourism: Sustainable Perspectives 8 (2011): 72.
6. Brears, Robert C. "Environmental Refugees from the Maldives: Are They Protected?" Thesis. University of Canterbury, 2009. (n.d.): n. pag. Social Science Research Network. 26 July 2009. Web. 21 Nov. 2012. <http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1438822>.
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